Discounted and non-discounted cash flow techniques Essay

Discounted and non-discounted cash persist proficiencys - Essay ExampleThis report aims at appraising four dissimilar suggests on the alkali of both discounted and non-discounted cash flow techniques. After the relevant computations, one depict exit be advised to be acceptedThis report also highlights the foresees judgment techniques in detail such that every technique will be discussed and its strengths and weaknesses will be elaborated. One by one every project will be considered for appraisal and its relevant computations will be provided in the appendix. The decision as to which project is to be accepted lies basic all(prenominal)y on two broader grounds namely as financial and non-financial. here(predicate) the financial grounds be discussed such that financial grounds itself can be bifurcated on two bottom which are discounted cash flow techniques and non-discounted cash flow techniques. The discounted cash flow techniques learn both the absolute and relative techn iques. The most popular absolute technique is terminate Present nourish (NPV) technique which has also been used in this current analysis. The relative discounted cash flow techniques may flip various forms in which the famous ones are Internal Rate of Return (IRR) and Profitability Index (PI). On the new(prenominal) hand, the non-discounted cash flow techniques consist of Payback Period, Urgency and Accounting Rate of Return (ARR). Discounted capital Flow Techniques In this particular analysis, NPV, IRR and PI are used as discounted cash flow techniques to pass judgment the project whereas only Payback is used as non-discounted cash flow technique as other techniques cannot be used because the non-availability of the relevant data. The following discussion contains detailed explanation of discounted cash flow techniques. Net Present Value Net Present Value technique is the most famous project appraisal technique such that it explains the benefits of the project in an absolute financial sense. This technique provides an absolute figure as how much the project would earn given in its project life. This technique works on the basis of discounting such that cash out flows and flows are discounted through an appropriate discount rate which is generally the charge average cost of capital. In the way, the present value of all cash outflows and inflows are computed and consequently all the present values are summed up to obtain the Net Present Value of the project. Strengths The strength of this technique is that it provides an absolute amount which reflects the overall benefits that the project can provide now. This technique is also quite sincere to calculate and quite easy to understand. Weaknesses The weaknesses include that the NPV of a particular project can exactly be equal to another project but both the projects may have significant differences in the magnitude of the cash flows. Another weakness of the technique is that it is based on the future e xpectations such that cash flows are projected with judgment. In case if the economic and financial situation changes, then the actual results may interchange significantly from the estimates NPV. Comprehensive financial knowledge is also required to compute the NPV especially in those projects where task implications have the key impact upon the generation of cash flows. Internal Rate of Return This discounted cash flow technique is also quite popular among the financial analyst such that it works on the basis of NPV. Internal Rate of Return is that rate at which the Net Present Value of a project becomes zero. This means that if the IRR is used as a discount rate instead of WACC which can produce a nil NPV. Hence if IRR exceeds than WACC, then the project can produce positive NPV. However, if IRR remains lower than WACC then NPV would also remain in a negative zone. Strengths The biggest strength of IRR is that it is a relative measure and a comparable one. It is also easier to understand the logic that works behind it. The interpretation of IRR is quite easy and this technique is also quite consistent with the objective of maximizing the wealth of shareholders. Weaknesses There are many drawbacks of this

ASSIGNMENT 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

ASSIGNMENT 1 - Essay lawsuitFor the given study, the case in focus is a London production titled maturity date. In brief, the ikon focuses on the life of the main character called Sam who had been in jail for quite a authoritative time after being convicted for killing Trife. In a funny twist, what Sam propagates after orgasm from jail is the same thing that Trife had persuaded him not to do. Trife had tried to make Sam not ensurek revenge. later on killing his friend and going to jail for it, Sam faces a challenging life afterwards. Basically, the movie is around justice and retribution as a form of dispensation of legal law. The discussion that follows herein focuses on how Adulthood as a film observes the stipulated legal, ethical and regulations outlined in the film industry. Just ilk in every profession, the film industry needs to be regulated. It needs to conform to the set legal, ethical as well as relevant regulations. The industry controls a significant revenue and tribe. Its influence on the population is also significant. This highlights the importance of adhering to accepted principles. This has relevance since the influence that films command on the audience can receive serious implications if deliberations ar not taken into mind while controlling the industry. A film like adulthood portrays what happens in most societies. It gives the predicament of those out of jail in view of the rest of the members of the society. socialisation and getting accepted into the society after serving time in jail is often a challenge to most ex-convicts. Prejudices form part of human life. It is common to perceive people or situations from what is picture without giving considerations to the intricate factors that surround such(prenominal) situations. In terms of films, legal and ethical implications must be observed to ensure the audience gets the right quality (BBFC, 2013). In case that does not happen, on that point be obvious drawbacks and legal tussles that a film such as Adulthood will be set about with. The audiences are consumers. Consumer satisfaction is a responsibility any business. Government policies also protect consumers. Striking a balance in reference to the two guarantees legal sustainability. In the course of film production, there are obvious contractual agreements that bind the involved parties. In this case, for instance, the film was produced by Amir Madani. In addition, there were other limited indebtedness companies such as High bridge entertainment, Gran via Productions and Sony Pictures Television which were consulted to see the quality production as well as distribution of the film. There are several benefits associated with such companies. Firstly, individual film maker is usually represented by the company should there be a contract breach during the film production (BBFC, 2013). Secondly, the film maker could sell some interests to the limited liability companies and raise some funds to ensure th e production process is a success. The companies are more believably to oblige to the tax scheme other than a certain film maker facing the levy process on individual capacity. The legal predicaments involved in contracts are still applicable in this case. Below is a pictorial representation of the movies cover. Being an original work, the movie is a patented product. Its producer has the right of ownership. Any breach of that can lead to a tussle in a court of law. The breach may come from unlawful reproduction. Adulthood was a film which

Analysis of Irony and Coincidence in Suzhou River Essay

analytic thinking of Irony and Coincidence in Suzhou River - Essay ExampleLou Ye departs drastically from other contemporaries of Beijing pictorial matter Academy, takes an abrupt swing from the downbeat realism that characterizes their works, and embarks on a mystical treatment of the theme. He employs irony and elements of alignment in portraying the theme of love in a complex and obscure manner that makes the motion-picture show a mysterious enigma for the audience.The movie deals with the romance between Mardar and Moudan, as narrated by an unnamed videographer. Mardar, a motorcycle courier runs the errand of riding Moudan from her fathers residence to a relatives prepare whenever the father wants to engage in his assignations. The girlish Moudan, young an adventurous, asks him to claim like Schwarzenegger. (Ye, Lou). The couple falls in love but tragedy strikes in their lives in the form of Mardars betrayal of her. Mardar is associated with the criminal the pits and is fo rced to kidnap Moudan on the instructions of the gang he belongs to, in order to extract property from her father. Moudan learns about Mardars deceit, and heartbroken, she jumps into Suzhou River and disappears. Mardar is arrested for complicity in the incident and sentenced to imprisonment. When he returns he meets Meimei, a look-alike of Moudan, who works as a night club performer, dressed up as a mermaid. Mardar believes she is Moudan, and wants to seduce her. The videographer who is obsessed with Moudan tries to drive Mardar out of town. Tragedy strikes again when the couple gets consumed the metaphorical river. The mystic play of love and obsession between Mardar and Moudan, and the videographer and Meimei, between Meimei and Mardar, further underline the complexity of love, makes it impossible for the viewer to exactly know whether Meimei is actually Moudans reincarnation or just Mardars illusion or whether Moudans story is real or just a fictitious one.Lou Ye uses irony to g ood effect in alluding to the complexity of

'Military interventions by Western states, in response to humanitarian Essay

Military interferences by Western states, in response to kind-hearteditarian crisis since the abrogate of the Cold War, have been motivat - Essay ExampleHowever, the legality of forces interventions where there argon humanitarian crisis is evermore in question. This is so since, there are no legal platforms that allow foreign rural areas military forces to occupy or use force in an other country without the consent of the invaded countrys politics. Thus, this paper will examine how humanitarian interventions have been motivated by moral value rather than legal actions by carefully examining the major humanitarian intervention that western countries have undertaken since the windup of the cold war and the ethical and moral theories that are considered when undertaking such interventions. On examining such interventions, it is mathematical for to determine whether morality is the factor behind humanitarian interventions by western countries. Body (for) Indeed military interven tions due to humanitarian crisis have been motivated by moral values and not policy-making or economic interests since there have been various military interventions around the world where there is no political or economic gain in question. ... This turned into a civil war where the then government ordered the massacre of innocent civilians. The United Nation tried imposing economic sanctions but the atrocities did not end. Were it not for the actions of the United Nation to mandate a military intervention then the violation of human rights by the then Libyan government could not have come to an end. Kosovo is another good standard of how military intervention motivated by moral values resulted in positive results. More than 230,000 large number had been internally displaced due to the civil war in Kosovo and thousands of innocent civilians had been killed. The western countries could not sit and image while crimes against humanity were being committed in Kosovo. As a result of their moral covenant in 1998 both the United Nations and NATO agreed and military intervention by western countries took place in Kosovo resulting in the end of the Humanitarian crisis in the country. The situations in the two counties clearly show that military intervention by western countries is morally right because it resulted in the saving of lives in the respective countries. Body (against) international politics are dominated by western countries that try to impose western ideologies o the other countries raising the question whether moral values or political interests motivate these interventions. This is because, western countries tend to physiognomy military intervention claiming their moral obligation whereas the truth of the matter is that some military intervention are actually carried out as a result of either economic or political gain. In fact Marxists cite the notion that former United States of America president Nixon comment that the USA offers supporter to o ther countries in order to help themselves to prove that military

A conceptual framework can be easily developed for accounting Essay

A abstract poser bottomland be easily developed for accounting. Critically evaluate this statement and provide examples to illustrate your upshot - Essay ExampleSolomons emphasized that the accountants must not distort the financial statement to favor one(a) or more parties to the detriment of the other equally interested parties (Solomons 1996). A conceptual mannequin can be easily developed for accounting.The prior pen and pencil manual recording of business exertion has metamorphosed into the current software based recording of business transactions. FASB and IASB published Conceptual cloths as guides for the preparation of financial reports. The WorldCom, Enron, and other accounting scandals have precipitated to the U.S. Sarbanes Oxley Act. Presently, there is a move to harmonise the U.S. conceptual framework and the U.K. conceptual framework (King 2006). Interested parties contribute their inputs to increase the ease in formulating the conceptual framework of accountin g. A conceptual framework serves as a guide in the preparation of accounting report. A conceptual framework can be easily developed for accounting.Further, the conceptual framework is a groups scrupulous endeavor. Persons and groups from different fields of interest meet to share their opinions, suggestions, comments, and criticisms during the proposal to create a new conceptual framework. Each party will try to make the finalized concept benefit its needs and wants. Finally, a compromised recital is approved by a majority of the conceptual framework making group. The approved conceptual framework is then published in accounting journals and explained in the latest accounting textbooks. The companies, especially those listed in the capital of the United Kingdom stock exchange, will incorporate the latest approved conceptual framework in the preparation of its financial statements.Furthermore, accounting is grounded on a conceptual framework. The conceptual framework is to present a fair and avowedly accounting of the daily business operations of the company. Accounting is the language of business. Thus, different parties use the

Finance international business Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Finance international business - Research Paper ExampleThis includes manufacture ring, processing, buying, transportation, computer memory etc. Pre-shipment credit is also called as packaging credit in some countries. This is short border finance.Post shipment finance is the credit offered to the importer in order to buy goods. Not all exporters ar financially sound to extend credit to the importer. In order to encourage importers financial assistance is offered to them. This is through through financial institutions, commercial banks especially.Under the consignment terms of purchase the importer makes allowance to the exporter only when the goods are sold to the end user and payment is received from them. This type of purchase poses high risk to the exporter as thither could be indefinite delay in the sale of goods to the end user. It however favors the importer. This type of payment is observed in case of very high trust among the traders or if the exporting firm is financial ly capable enough to incur the loss, if there is any.The name clearly suggests the feature of this financing option. The importer has to pay in advance to receive the goods. In other words the payment is done before the shipment of the goods. Again, there are a few reasons for choosing this option. The importer is yet to establish a name in the market or the exporter has little faith in the financial status of the importer. The high demand of the product could be some other reason for opting this mode of payment. The Cash-in-Advance type payment poses high risk to the importer.This financial instrument poses equal occur of risk to both, the importer and the exporter. The importer has to pay a certain part of the payment in advance to initiate the trade. The tear payment is paid at the time of signing the contract or shortly thereafter. The risk tough for the exporter is that the importer may not pay after receiving the goods. Similarly the exporter may not deliver the goods afte r receiving the garbage down payment. Hence, the risks are

The Al Qaida Transnational Terrorist Network Essay

The Al Qaida Transnational Terrorist Network - rise ExampleBut the larger issue revolved around the nature of terrorism itself and its emerging modus operandi. Whether the 11 September attacks in the f each(prenominal) in States were the delayed manifestation of Oplan Bojinka, as some believe, or whether they were an isolated plan, it is earn that terrorism--and grumpyly that form of terrorism practiced by al Qaeda --has fundamentally changed.Since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, the United States has achieved significant successes in its war on terrorism. Removing the Taliban government in Afghanistan, thereby eliminating al Qaedas sanctuary and nurture camps, has broken an important link in the process that once provided al Qaedas leadership with a go along flow of recruits. Toppling the Taliban also demonstrated American resolve and international support, and it underscored the considerable risk run by governments that provide assistance to terrorists.From the s ummary in above, I would like to gradually come down to particular research of Al Qaeda terrorist organization. I will first discuss the historical and statistical facts slightly organization, than make the insights into organizational motivations and strategy finally will come out with conclusions as for the possible ship canal of dealing with future possible attacks. HistoryAl Qaeda was a product of the struggle to eradicate the Soviet Union from Afghanistan. Portrayed as a holy war, that campaign brought together volunteers and financial contributors from end-to-end the Islamic world. Muslims from Algeria, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Southeast Asia, and beyond fought side by side, forging relationships and creating a cadre of veterans who share a powerful life experience, a more global view, and a heady sense of self-reliance underscored by the Soviet Unions ultimate withdrawal and subsequent collapse, for which they assumed credit. Instead of being welcomed home as heroes, however , the returning veterans of the Afghan campaign were watched by suspicious regimes who worried that the religious fervour of the fighters posed a political threat. Isolated at home, they became ready recruits for new campaigns. There were ample reasons and opportunities to continue the fight the disconnect War and the consequent arrival of American troops in Saudi Arabia the continued repression of Islamic challenges to topical anaesthetic regimes armed struggles in Algeria, Egypt, the newly independent Muslim republics of the former Soviet Union, Kashmir, the Philippines, and Bosnia the forces of globalization that seemed threatening to all local cultures and the continuing civil war in Afghanistan. Organizational survival, the natural desire to continue in meaningful activity, and the rewards of status and an inflated self-image contributed powerful incentives to continue the fight. The subsequent victories of a like-minded Taliban guaranteed safe harbor for the militants and th eir training camps, which graduated thousands of additional volunteers (Cullison, Higgins, 2001).What Osama bin Laden and his associates contributed to this potent but unfocused force was a sense of vision, mission, and strategy that combined 20th century theory of a unified Islamic canon with restoration of the Islamic Caliphate that, at its height, stretched

Digital marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Digital marketplaceing - Essay instanceMany of them uses their computers, mobile ph whizs among other things to access Facebook, twitter and instagram, therefore in the process they see information. there ar no barriers like distance, and even students who study online and live in other parts of the orb will be able to see the information and decide whether to join the club or not (Harris, 2008, 85).Posting adverts on social media is cheaper as compared to other ordinary means of advertising. There is no in operation(p) cost maintenance as well as paying employees since this system only needs one person to post information to the site. Once information is posted, students will need to login and only charged seek fees like they usually does when doing other things online. It is one of the cheapest means of selling a product (Michie, 2006, 14).Personalization of products and good aim is commodiously achieved through social media. Description of the club, its roles and even goo d photographs can be designed to great effect and posted to help the club pull in strong base within the institution. Organizers of the club are not worried about delays of information reaching the target group since currently all students are supple in social media. This will maximize awareness of the club to students in long run (Michie, 2006, 12). go technology is also another reason why Facebook, twitter and istagram is a good platform to market the club. With all the students being active in these sites, it is important to take this advantage. They are used to these programs and their interpretation and science about the club will be positive (Harris, 2008, 87). They will link the club with good leadership, star and vision which will help the club to gain further success.In conclusion, the world has become a dynamic place to live in. there are changes all over the place, and the people who experience this are students as they discover a lot while still studying. In the univ ersity, the club will gain huge fame

Reseach Paper on Chronic Diabetic Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Reseach on Chronic Diabetic - Research Paper Example image2 diabetes was found to be controlled by providing medications. Both subject 1 and causa 2 diabetes atomic number 18chronic conditions which are non possible to be cured completely. It is characterized by disruptions in the metabolism of carbohydrates, copious and protein in the body (Bilotta, 2008, p.236). There are two primary forms of diabetes Type 1 and Type 2. Type 1 diabetes - If a person has Type 1 diabetes his body will not make insulin on its own. It occurs in any individual and is treated by taking dosage of insulin shots daily or by an insulin pump. The patients need to maintain a regulated diet plan. Type 2 diabetes This is the commonest form of diabetes. If a patient suffers from Type 2 diabetes, his body will show resistance to insulin. Type 2 diabetes is semi curable in nature. It is often hereditary in nature and occurs mainly in people who are higher up 40. Type 2 diabetes cigaret be treated with prop er exercise and weight (National Kidney Foundation, 2007, p.4). Physical inertia or a sedentary lifestyle can also lead to Type 2 diabetes (STEWART, 2005, p.196). Pathophysiology and sound judgement of the disease Diabetes mellitus (DM) or simply diabetes results from either insulin deficiency or the resistance to endogenous insulin. This deficiency in insulin compromises with the access of the body tissues to essential nutrients (Bilotta, 2008, p. 236). All forms of the disease increases the risk that can lead to long-term complications. These symptoms typically show after several days like almost after 10 to 20 years but it can be seen as the first form of the symptom in the patient who was other than not diagnosed before. The common symptoms of diabetes are polyuria, polyphagia, weight discharge, fatigue etcetera The complications that can arise out of these symptoms let in cardio vascular diseases, blindness or retinopathy, nephropathy, cognitive depression, hyperglycemia e tc. While assessing the symptoms for Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes, the physicians can check for symptoms like frequent urination, dehydration, dry mucous membrane, rapid weight loss and increased hunger, nocturnal diarrhea and many more. For Type 1, the symptoms can be develop rapidly darn for Type 2, it can be drawn by studying the family history, severe forms of viral infection etc. The physical symptoms seen in case of the diabetic patients can be in the form of changes seen in the legs and feet, sinew wasting, reduced reflexes in the deep tendons of the bones, cataract formation etc (Bilotta, 2008, p.237). Chronic Diabetes harming the kidneys in human body Diabetes can prepare severe damage to the kidneys by damaging the parenthood vessels of the kidney. The filtering sections in the kidney are lined with minute blood vessels. With the passage of time, high sugar level found in the patients blood can make the blood vessels to turn narrow and thus clogged. Without getting enough blood, the kidneys tend to be modify and albumin which is a protein made within the human body are passed through these filters which settle in the urine. This is a critical situation as this occurrence of albumin in the urine of the patient is not a very healthy condition (National Kidney Foundation, 2007, p.7). Kidney damage can also harm the nerves in the patients body. Nerves of the human body carry messages that are transmitted between the thinker and the rest other parts of the body that also includes the urinary bladder.

Reflection paper - Characteristics & Support of Effective Coaching & Essay

Reflection paper - Characteristics & Support of Effective Coaching & Mentoring - Essay grammatical caseFirst, the team members digest that the bearing should be objective and have positivistic criticism. This expectation requires that their coach is adequate to(p) to give constructive criticism to the members regarding their performance during the training, as well as cosmos able to signal out and acknowledge the positive aspects of the trainees (Knight, 2008). This is vital, since it enables the team members to know the truth regarding their performance, in terms of where they are doing well, and where they engage changes and improvements, without frustrating or nevertheless killing their morale. The other expectation that the participants have regarding their coachs attribute is that the coach should be readily easy. This means that the coaches should avail themselves whenever the team members gather up them, or be available to the team members, whenever they move in a ppointments with them. For the coaching to be telling, the relationship between the coaches and their team members who they are training should be that of partners (Knight, 2002). This is because, individuals feel valued and appreciated, whenever they treated as equals, as opposed to being treated as subordinates, or even being dominated over by others, regardless of their position in the chain of command. Thus, to make the coaching more effective, the trainees require to have the freedom to make choices regarding certain aspects of the coaching, and requires the coach to honor their choices, being a partner to the coaching exercise (Knight, 2008). This way, the members of the team being coached requires the coach to be available when they need him, or whenever they make an appointment with the coach. This is also aligned with the principle of punctuality as one of the expectations that the participants would expect their coach to have. The participants in the coaching sessions exp ect that the coach will be available in favorable time, when they set such time. The availability and the punctuality of the coach are the two characteristics that are fundamental for effective coaching, since they go a long way in enhancing the trust that the team members will have on their coach (Knight, 2008). The other important expectation that the participants have regarding the characteristics of the coach is that the coach should be knowledgeable in the subject matter. There is nothing that commands respect and trust more, than an individuals competency and demonstrated knowledge and ability in the field of specialization of the individuals. Thus it is through being highly knowledgeable in the subject matter, that a coach is able to win the trust of the participants, since they have the comfort that they are gaining the best (Lipton & Wellman, n.d.). This motivates the individuals to be even more enthusiastic and committed to learning, considering that they have the belief that they are achieving the best. However, the most significant expectation of the participants regarding the characteristics of the coach is that the coach will have good listening skills, and thus be able to give them positive emotional support. Listening skills are vital for coaching, considering that they enable the coach to learn the team members, including their strengths and weaknesses, and thus enable the coach

Literature review Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words - 1

Literature review - Coursework Examplel growing to the economic growth and on the other Robinson (1952) and Lucas (1988) opined that monetary development at most might train as a supplementary condition to economic growth and at times extremely over emphasized. Again, MacKinnon (1973) and Shaw (1973) provide theories on how distortion in monetary market hinders growth. The present paper choses to conduct a comprehensive study of empirical literatures on financial development and economic growth nexus relate with China relates the findings with the present theories on the same domain and thereafter moves to reach a conclusion.Shan and Morris (2002) used beautify data for 19 OECD countries along with China over the period 1985 to 1998 to test the connectedness between financial development and growth through a VAR model. The empirical result obtained this way depicts weak sleeper between financial development and economic growth and cast doubts on the much celebrated associati on between the two. The results obtained this way is in tune with the theoretical proposition of Robinson (1952) and Lucas (1988) who have mentioned that financial development kitty at most be a supplementary condition to economic growth and not the propellent factor for the same.Liang (2005) has developed a theoretical model at first referring that financial intermediaries can cloak economic growth. Then the author has empirically tested the model using panel data for 29 Chinese provinces over the period 1990 to 2001 through applying GMM techniques of panel data analysis. The result obtained this way refers to the fact that financial development together with government deregulation in financial sector have contributed significantly and positively to Chinese economic growth. Regarding the theoretical support the empirical results are in tune with theoretical propositions of Bagehot (1873), Schumpeter (1912), Hicks (1969) and Grossman and miller (1988) regarding the relation bet ween financial development and economic

Magnetic Resonance Instrumentation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Magnetic sonority Instrumentation - Essay ExampleThis is achieved by increasing using multiple turns of the coil to increase its sensitivity, to drop by the wayside high duty of pulsing. At the same time, the design provide consider the inductance of the coil gradient, which will have to be minimized. The components of the MR system that are important in this regard include the gradient amplifier, potentiality across the inductive, and the resistance across the gradient coil. Q3. The effects of gradient G(r) on Larmor processional frequency at a position r is to change the processional frequency at this position r. Q4. The optimal breakup of two current carrying loops to produce as li close-fitting a magnetic field gradient as is possible at the centre of the two loops is when 2Z1 =, where a refers to the coil radius. The reason as to why this separation is different from the necessary one to produce a homogenous field is because separating the field in that expressive style help in generating relatively pure fields. Q5. Slew rate refers to the maximum gradient strength as a factor of the rise time (Vmax/L). The slew rate needs to be as bear-sized as possible because it helps in stimulating the peripheral nerves of the human body, thereby creating a weirdo type sensation on the skin. Q6. Reason why it is necessary to shield gradient coils This is done primarily to reduce the net inductance of the system Q7. Type of effect caused by gradient coil shield to reduce combat the effects of eddy-current induced magnetic fields. Q8. The causes of undesirable sounds produced by magnetic vibrancy tomography at runtime are due to gradient coil experiencing magnetic forces and torques when being pulsed. The reason is that as the coils recover physically restrained, the energy associated with the magnetic forces is released acoustically as loused sound. The undesirable sound quite a little be cut by Designing a gradient coil that are torque and force balanced pliant the gradient pulses to reduce sound produced Using acoustically absorbent formers for the coils Encasing the gradient coils in an evacuated chamber so that waves of the sound are not compatible. Q9. The main cause of nerve stimulation due to magnetic resonance imaging is the slew rate push and the maximum gradient strengths that induce field in the patient, thereby stimulating the nerves. This is mainly observed by experiencing a crawling type sensation on the skin. It can also be observed through twitching of muscles as the nerves get stimulated. Q10. The causes of impurities in the stable magnetic field (BO) include The patient and radiofrequency coils in the DSV, which may alter the magnetic field due to their magnetic properties Imperfection in the magnetic manufacturing process Installation site where ferrous installations done near the magnet may end up altering the homogeneity of the magnetic field over the DSV. Q11. The two types of image quality reduction caused b y zonal impurities in the static magnetic field are Artifacts Homogeneity. Part B The terce topics in my order of preference are 1) Interventional MR system 2) MR gradient coils serve and performance 3) RF resonators for MR applications. The main reason as to why I have chosen the three topics is due to my desire to learn more than about them so that I can acquire more knowledge

Assignment GCC Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

GCC - Assignment ExampleHowever, the estate regains a positive mark in 2011 by a positive GDP growth (Bank).The GDP per capita depicts the value that each citizen within the countrys borders produces. The indicator is used to show the standards of living of the population. As per the data above, the GDP per capita reduces from the class 2007 to the year 2011. The scenario is despite the fact that the values do not differ too much from country to country.The pompousness level in all the GCC countries has been on the rise from the year 2007. The implications argon that the prices of normal goods and services are on the rise over the years. In some of the countries, the figure has grown over four times. For instance, the content of Kuwait, the inflation indicator in 2007 is 4.3 while for the year 2011 it is 21.3. The Genuine Progress Indicator thus depicts a scenario whereby the countries tend to experience negative growth whereas some of the countries are in stagnation in damage of economic

Is Eurozone sustainable for the UK to join Literature review

Is Eurozone sustainable for the UK to wed - Litearned run averageture review ExampleOver the past a few(prenominal) years, there has been a considerable debate about the stand that the United realm has taken towards Eurozone. This theatre of operations explores the topic, Is Eurozone sustainable for the UK to mating. By taking a detailed look at the reasons because of which UK did not join and the reasons due to which the other countries joined, this study would try to analyze the perspective of the UK with regards to Eurozone. A Brief History of EurozoneFor more decades, European leaders and diplomats have discussed and debated the concept of a monetary integration of European countries. The arguments were multiple, while or so thought that the common currency could prove to be an alternative to the US dollar, slightly other matt-up that a single currency would provide many different advantages (Zimmerman, 1995). For approximately leaders, it meant political symbolism and f or some others, it meant the rise a new and improved economic model (Vujic, 2004). After a long era of discussions and debates, the Eurozone came into existence in1999 and the Euro became the legal currency for the member nations (Kleimeier and Sander, 2002). The adoption of a single currency would mean that all told the member countries would have a single monetary policy, and would not continue to have separate policies. To determine this, the European Central Bank came into existence which lays down the Europe wide monetary policies and handles decisions related to invade rates, exchange rates and so on. (Salvatore, 2002). Therefore, if any particular country wants to introduce a separate deliverance policy, it has to rely on the policies of the European Central Bank as it has become the sole authority of Eurozone. Having a single currency has both advantages and disadvantages and the existence of the Eurozone over the ten years has proved this. The Euro has seen success duri ng the bound of 2003-2005, where as it suffered from the loss of its stand during the economic recession that happened during 2008-2009. In recent times, there have been some apprehensions about the stability of the Euro, in the light of the results of the recession where some members of the Eurozone see major economic crises. why did the UK Not Join Eurozone? The United demesne is one of the most prominent nations of the European Union. Yet, it took a post on not connector Eurozone. The currency of the United Kingdom continues to be pound sterling and the possibilities of its joining Eurozone look bleak in the near future (Layard, 2002). The Maastricht Treaty (The treaty on European Union) saw the negotiation of an opt-out from the common currency (Leblond, 2004). The government that came into power post the 2010 election in the United Kingdom in like manner decided that it would not join the Euro as long as it was in governance. In addition, the UK also has carried out many public opinion polls to take a stance on the whether it should join the Eurozone and the polls in 2005, 2008 and 2009 also demonstrated the opposition to joining the UK. The past three governments of the United Kingdom also took strong stand on not joining the Eurozone. Prime Minister Tony Blair set forrad five economic tests (tests that would help in determining criteria such as the currency

Depend on the information that will given Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

look on the information that will given - Essay ExampleA lot of different countries all told over the world tried school uniform but later on were forced to shutdown it due to the liberalization of the society. In the United States, the polity of authorization school uniform started in the end of 1980s and it was aimed at decreasing gang formation and bullying (Han 1). Hence, according to Guerino et al., national reports indicate satisfying negative tendency in behavior of students that are prone to display violence and abuse (2). Currently, approach the question of imposing uniform on their tykeren, mevery parents have rather polysemantic opinion slightly it despite the fact that they used to wear uniform themselves in early school years. Majority of parents do non prefer the idea of egalitarianism, some people do not like the design or comfort of the concrete uniform, and former(a)s on the contrary view the uniform as a solution to fiscal problem. Analyzing all advantage s and disadvantages of uniform policy, it is fair to state that there are number of reasons for approval of mandatory corporate frameworks in educational institutions. Firstly, uniform eliminates social conflicts because children are not encouraged to amaze each other with new trendy cloths and stand out of the crowd. There is no opportunity to judge classmates by their cloth and organize social groups according to the financial status of a child. Secondly, uniform creates conducive school environs and maintains discipline as it is supposed that looking formal helps students feel and behave more professionally. Thirdly, with the help of mandatory uniform policy, it is less complicated to ensure safety within a campus. When everyone is wearing the same attire, any intruder to the territory of a school can be easily identified. In addition to the drop-off of social tension, egalitarianism diminishes economic barriers between learners, whose decision-making process regarding what t hey should wear in the morning is simplified considerably. Moreover, world(a) uniform does not affect family budget in the same rate as diversified pressing of the child that is supposed to take place in case there is no mandatory uniform. It is kind of obvious that one complete set of uniform costs much cheaper than several attires for a child to alternate with each other. Furthermore, no matter whether uniform is obligatory or not, schools boldness still must control outward appearance of the students and set limitations and basic rules of dress code for not letting children to cross the line of permissibility and decorum. However, in case all students are forced to wear unified cloths, the need to keep an eye on childrens look and provide further restrictions and punishments for not by-line the rules languishes. Also, a lot of experts consider that wearing uniform develops team building and strengthens school spirit. All these enkindle pride for educational institution and enhance fellowship between students, who get the same conditions, opportunities and treatment. Looking more as integrity than varicolored mass helps unite the collective and foster so-called corporate ethics. Analyzing aesthetics, it should be stressed that not all parents have a good taste therefore frequently children whitethorn look inelegantly and even preposterous meanwhile properly sewed uniform is able to devastate some flaws in persons appearance. Finally, the most important argument that convinces to stick to the uniform policy is

Kite Runner Themes Essay Example for Free

Kite Runner Themes EssayBaba expresses a smashing deal of self-respect and attachment to the afghan culture so the move to America fills amir and himself with a loss of inheritance and identity. The escape from the previous culture however eachows emir to escape the incident of rape upon his best consort Hassan which has left a bad taste on his childhood. In America emeer doesnt drama away from his Middle Eastern culture, and asks Sorayas father, the general for permission to marry her even though he spurns it slightly by talking to her privately with forth consent. Amir towards the block up, becomes proud of his blended culture.Although he enjoys visiting Pakistan, take the traditional food and hearing references to childhood legends, he also likes the feeling of hope and freedom he gained from America. Social Inequality From childhood, Amir recognizes the dissimilitude in social standing between himself and best superstar Hassan. As a Pashtun, Amir enjoys privileges of being a higher class and his father being a successful piece of music whereas Hassan is poor and he and his father face prejudice from people every day. patronage this, Hassan and Ali ar content with their lower class life and argon good natured human beings.Hosseini is trying to channel that your social standing in society does not determine what kind of person you argon and if you argon better than someone else. You can only truly be better than someone else morally and having saint-like characteristics. During Amir and Hassan childhood, theyre differences of social class are conveyed by living standards, Hassan being illiterate and physical appearances. These are individually important just now as a whole they all convey irony in the fact that it is Hassan who is content with life and Amir who is not.Later in the raw, Hazara prejudice which is taken to the extreme as they are massacred and abused by Taliban officials, such as Assef. When Sohrab returns with Amir to Ameri ca, Amir is quick to dispel any mention of class as he believes it is has influenced his and Sohrabs life as well peachyly and he possibly ultimately sees them as his equals which he was afraid to do so as a child(never referring to Hassan as his friend). ain Responsibility Many of the actions of the main character stem from personal responsibility.Baba takes on the responsibility of Ali from his father, who took him in when he was a child. He lets Ali and his son work for him, offers them shelter and food making them feel straggle employees and part family. Air later realises this personal responsibility baba showed for Ali may stem from his guilt of betraying Ali and fathering Hassan. Amir feels accountable for all the bad chancerences which happened to Hassan and his father. He feels many of the events which occurred later in the novel are down to him being too cowardly to prevent Hassan being raped.Though many suffer from the Talibans ruthlessness, he believes the events that happened to Hassans family are his responsibility/fault. The feeling of responsibility is what drives Amir to return to Afghanistan, to rescue Sohrab. Rahim Khan plants this idea in Amirs head and suggests this is the way to achieve closure and absolution for the past. After he rescues Sohrab, Amir feels responsible for the boy in a different way and wants to protect him from anymore pain furthermore, he sees Sohrab as a way to fill the emptiness in the marriage from his and Sorayas infidelity.Identity and Self- discovery Throughout the novel the protagonist struggles to find his true purpose and find his identity through noble actions. Amirs failure to be loyal to his friend at such a crucial moment defines this conflict. His movement to overcome his own weaknesses appear in confronting Assef, returning to a war torn country oppressed by the Taliban and even his carsickness whilst during with Farid. The revelation of baba later in chapter 17, allows Amir to discover who his father really was and how equivalent they were in terms of betraying people who loved and were loyal to the end to them.The return to Afghanistan allows Amir to find out the type of man he can become and to confront his past which he has so desperately tried to bottle up. Family, Fathers and Fatherhood Family relationships play a great part in this novel but mformer(a)s are strikingly absent. Amir and Hassan grow up without their mothers and this is exemplified through the tension of Babas treatment of his sons. He makes it clear he is disappointed Amir is bookish, cowardly to protect his social standing and stick up for Hassan whilst on the other hand, he never publically acknowledges Hassan as his own son- although he shows a great deal of affection to Hassan.Likewise, General Taheri is a similar traditional, highly critical father who chafes his daughter for mutinous behaviour. The al-Qaeda of family is then reintroduced when Amir and Soraya are unsuccessful in starting their own- punishment perhaps for their pasts or that Amir has yet to face up to his. The adoption of the troubled Sohrab however, provides them with the attempt to begin a land up family based on love and honesty. Journey and Quest The novel is aboutly based around Amirs discharge from Afghanistan as a young teenager and his return as a middle aged man to the war-torn country.At the comparable time, it is a symbolic quest. Amir makes great sacrifices to pursue his quest to rue for past sins by rescuing his nephew Sohrab in the hands of the Taliban. Symbolised at the beginning of the novel with Amir cutting his fingers with the increase string in order to sacrifice himself for his fathers love, sacrifice plays a big theme also. Amir towards the end of the novel again, automaticly cuts his fingers, to revive his spiritually wounded nephew who is suffering from depression.By the end of the novel, this significant symbol of sacrifice shows how much Amir has morally developed as he is willing to sacrifice much in order to save Sohrab from a similar fate and to protect him. The most part of the novel is Amir hiding from his past and by returning to Kabul he is pickings that all important journey to have complete redemption. Political world-beater and Abuse The events of the novel occur against the tooshiedrop of political change, the rise of the Taliban government.Assef, Hassans rapist and bully, who becomes a high ranking Taliban officer, embodies the consequence of abuse of power and violence and oppression caused by the Taliban. Assef is a sociopath who thrives in the atmosphere of chaos. Interpersonal violence leads to the break out of Hassan and Amir on a national scale the abuse of power by communist back soviets results in massacres and Afghanistan forces to go into exile. The abuse of power and abuse is an important reference to how the hazaras have been treated. From degradation at the beginning of the novel for their looks to being massacred and hor rifically abused.When General Taheri demands an explanation for their adoption of Sohrab, he echoes the discrimination against this good ethnic minority and in a sense, Baba also condones the attitude towards Hazaras by not admitting that he fathered a Hazara son. Kites After Hassan gets raped while rails his increase, Amir cannot separate increase competitiveness and running from his own betrayal and cowardice. Therefore, even after all of his injuries and trials on Sohrabs behalf, it is the act of kite running that finally makes him feel redeemed.Beyond their significance to the plot, kites have multiple layers of symbolism in the story. One of these layers involves the class difference between Amir and Hassan, which largely dictates and limits their relationship. In kite fighting, one boy realizes the kite while the other assists by feeding the string. Just as Hassan makes Amirs breakfast, folds his clothes, and cleans his room, so does he cater to Amir in kite tournaments. Even though Hassan shares in the excitement of kite fighting, he does not actually have control over the kite.Hassan may help the kite lift-and-dive, but Amir is the one who claims a victory. Hassan may twist a cherished rival kite and hold it in his arms, but always to bring it back to Amir, to whom it then belongs. His joy is vicarious, just like his experience of wealth and privilege while living in Babas household. In order to free himself of selfishness and cowardice, Amir must go from being merely a kite fighter-someone who seeks glory-to a kite runner, someone who genuinely does things for others. The activity of kite fighting is violent by nature. The kites difference and so too do the children flying them.The string, which is covered in ground glass, carves deep gashes into the fliers hands as they try to cut each other down, and once kites fall out of the sky, the kite runners retrieve them with the like furious determination as, say, a hunting dog does a slain bird. In its violence, kite fighting represents the conflicts that rage Afghanistan nearly throughout the course of the novel. When Hosseini paints us a picture of hundreds of kites trying haphazardly and with great determination to cut each other down, he shows us also the warring factions of Afghanistan overthrowing one another.At the same time kite fighting is violent, the mere act of kite flying is innocent and speaks of freedom. Amir and Hassan do not have control over the differences between them in fact, they are both the victims of a lie, and their relationship would have been different had they known they were brothers. Yet despite their differences and the symbolism of their respective kite-fighting roles, flying kites is an activity that brings the boys together. For a moment, they are part of a team.For many years, Amir feels as though he and Hassan are adversaries for Babas love. After the rape, Hassans very existence infuriates Amir because it reminds him of his cowardice. D espite all this, when the boys fly kites together, they are on the same team. They are more like brothers then than perhaps any other time, because the activity is somewhat mutual. It allows them to momentarily escape their differences and enjoy a shared sense of exhilaration and freedom.

Environmental Distractions to Study Habits Essay Example for Free

Environmental Distractions to Study Habits Essay every(prenominal) learner is need to debate the lessons given by the teacher. By means of proper time management, a educatee becomes successful in his entire intellectual endeavor. But what if there are environmental distractions in his study habits? What will happen to his learning activities? Environmental distractions in study habits make a disciple at a disadvantaged position if it cannot be fully determined and keep offed. Therefore, environmental distractions are a hindrance to the intellectual development of a student.Environmental DistractionsIn order to avoid environmental distractions, it is required that a student must identify the things that gives problems to his studies. After all, how could he be successful in avoiding environmental distractions if he may not be able to identify them? Hence, correct identification of environmental distractions that mogul hinder the student from studying should be done.The en vironmental distractions to study habits may complicate emotional, physical and foreign distractions. larn Support Center nirvana Valley Community mentioned that physical environment of the study realm of a student relates to external distractions (Improving Your memory). In other words, if the environment is noisy and unorganized, study habits of a student may be hampered. Since we are aware that studying includes memorization, a student cannot effectively study when there television is opened or used within his environment, when there are whatsoever people chatting around him and when sound effects around him is very disturbing.Therefore, the best room for a student to avoid external distractions is to find a place conducive for learning like a noise-free room. Learning Support Center Paradise Valley Community also mentioned that the study area of a student must have quite surroundings or those places that really intended for studying (Improving Your Memory).Moreover, Gle ndale Community College stated that a good study environment must be free from distractions that force hinder memorizing and understanding reading materials (Study Skills). There should also be rules to follow like having a desk intended totally for studying not using television, radio and telephone while studying culmination the door of the study room so that people passing by it cannot distract a students aid the study area should not be cluttered and unorganized and that the study environment should be cloudless and spacious (Study Skills).If all these can be followed, there is no doubt that a student can study properly. Lastly, a student must not dwell long to problems of the family and friends and even individualised situations that can surely affect study habits. The environment should be free from emotional distractions so that the mentality of a student will remain fresh and able to absorb new ideas being study daily.ConclusionA student needs a study area that is free from environmental distractions. This constitution mentioned that environmental distractions involved emotional and physical distractions as well as external ones. Emotional distractions include family problems while physical and external distractions include television, radio, noisy environment and unorganized study area. Finally, the best way to attain an environment that is free from distraction is to identify the things that can distract a student and avoid them all.ReferencesGlendale Community College. (2008). Study Skills. Retrieved August 14, 2008, fromhttp//www.glendale.edu/new/services/counseling/study.htm.Learning Support Center Paradise Valley Community. (2008). Improving Your Memory. Retrieved August 14, 2008, from http//www.pvc.maricopa.edu/lsc/services/tips_improving_memory.htm.

Organisational Behaviour Essay Example for Free

Organisational Behaviour EssayQuestion One. From the case study, we can learn a parcel. It ranges from leadership, management, deform morals, deportment shaping and changing to the impact of positive and negatively charged reinforcements in organisations. Managing of creative fly the coopers, recognition of opportunities and problems, unethical strategies and tactics, team building and ne cardinalrking among others argon aspects that can be learned from the case study (Robinsen 2000). We can in addition learn from the study that Godot applied an autocratic or authoritative style of leadership.He could non perceive to each of his surveyers, he could not open any avenue of communication and consultation with his workers and could not deal the workers in decision making. All he could do was to haul insults at them instead of actively involving them in the day to day running of the restaurant. It is important to treat workers in a trade good mien if any positive resul ts be to be realised (Simons 2003). The first genesis to doing so is to implement substances and methods that would come on the esprit de corps of workers.Good leadership and management skills are essential to any organisation. Good work morals and behaviour should be instilled to the workers so that they can grant good results with very minimal super heap (Haddock 2001). Abuses and insults are not supposed to be used at the work tramp as they veritable(a) draw to scare away sensitive customers and other business people. Leaders and managers should learn new ways and methods of modify workers efficiency and results. Organisations that deploy such ways and methods, have expressd to stand ahead of others (Wharton 1996).Question Two. there are several negative and positive reinforcements, penalization and extinctions that were used by Godot and the customers in shaping of the employees behaviour. exacting reinforcements included the dedication and industriousness of Godot . This is positive in that it helps the workers as they are able to emulate what Godot stands for. through dedication and to a great extent work, the restaurant was able to stand the test of time. This was an inspiration to the workers. Another positive reinforcement was that of the customers.The customers would appreciate the work d matchless by Diane and compliment her efficient services. This would give her morale to work even harder and efficiently knowing that her services were good. There are also negative reinforcements. They can be seen in general from Godots attitude and way of doing certain things. He was a man prone to emotional outbursts. He could yell and shout at his workers whenever something went wrong or whenever he could not see what he judge of them. This is negative in that it instilled a sense of fear to the workers and always make them nervous (Bringsrud 2004).This makes someone not to perform to the expected standards, His lack of compliment to his workers is also a negative reinforcement (Myers 1997). He did not appreciate anything good but was so quick at condemning and demonising anything he felt was not right. A good employer needs to give credit where it belongs. This is a way of encouraging and giving morale to the workers (Simons 2003). Godot could not see anything good in it. All he could do was merely grunt at Diane even when she said hello or goodbye. Such attributes do not befit a good employer.Punishment was in the form of fining his workers whenever something went wrong. When Diane dropped a plate of bouillabaisse appetiser, she was scorned at and fined a positive of $24. 95. This punishment demoralised her to the sustain of affecting her performance. Her earnings from tips dropped from a one time top of 23 pct to a meager 15 percent. This was as a result of reduction the footfall at which she worked in coiffure to prevent any other incidences from happening. From this, one can easily tell that the punishment impos e on her was too much and she could not risk losing the amount any more.Such a negative reinforcement does not add any value to the business but instead it demoralizes the workers thus reducing the pace of working (Wharton 19968). As a result, the customers end up waiting for long and some mogul give up and leave. This turns out to affect the restaurant adversely. Godot as an employer has various ways of improving or shaping the behaviour of his employees. One of the ways is by introducing packages that are employee friendly and putting in place certain measures that would improve the performance of his employees instead of using ruthless methods such as imposing of great fines and punishment to the workers.Such methods could include appreciating what the workers do and also ones in a while complimenting the efforts made. Diane would have been appreciated in various ways and by so doing, her morale would have been boosted thus making her work extra hard and as a result winning mor e customers. Employers need to realise that fond responsibility and leadership in organisations and businesses for that matter are very vital aspects (Haddock 2001475). Workers number on employers and employers depend on workers too. This is a mutual relationship which should be upheld in all cases.This should be realised by both the parties in orderliness for the business to perform to the expectations. Question Three. The reinforcements and punishment mentioned in question two have both positive and negative impact on Diane behaviour. Inasmuch as the punishment imposed on Diane would seem to be on the extreme, it could be viewed as positive in some ways. Being minute at the job place is extremely important. When Diane dropped the plate of appetiser, she was fined heavily by Godot. This made her promise to be more careful than ever before so that she could not operate herself in the same fault again.This instills a sense of discipline and responsibility to the workers (McTaga rt 2003). The strict nature of Godot, his dedication and industriousness was a lesson for Diane. Her behaviour would be influenced by such reinforcements. She would learn to be dedicated and more independent in future. Her pace of doing things would also improve as she was used to doing tasks at a very immediate rate. This obviously is a positive change to her behaviour. On the other hand, Godots lack of compliment and appreciation would affect her behaviour too.This will make her feel left out, unwanted and also feel like her services are not worth. If Godot had behaved contraryly in this case, Diane would have learned from the same and applied it elsewhere. In any organisation, behavioral shaping and change is very important. Every employee should feel like part of the team in order for there to be teamwork and tangible results (Moir 1999). The lack of appreciation and compliment changed Dianes way and pace of doing the job. It made her slow down thus affecting the job she was doing.The emphasis of Godot on the importance of working as a team is seen as a positive gesture of behavioural shaping. If an employee was hired and he/she did not appreciate the importance of working as a team, he/she would learn from Godots vision and his way of doing things, thus shaping ones behaviour (Stuart 2003). Question Four. The effectiveness of hourly stick out rates and tips as a way of reinforcing desired behaviours could go either way, that is, it could either be positive or negative depending on the outcome and the intention of the method.hourly catch up with rates in most cases is the method that most employees cull (Hufman 200249). This is because one approachs remunerative depending on their efforts. If one inputs more effort in the job he/she is paid more than that who inputs less. The principle ideally is more effort more pay, less effort less pay. This is not comely an advantage to the employees only but also to the employers (Godwin 2001). If an employee does more, the employer also gets more in returns. Hourly pay has proved to be the best way of traffic with both the employers and the employees.One could work for a certain period of time and get doing something else including attending lectures and lessons. This method does not tie someone to one thing. One becomes flexible enough to the extend of even doing more than one job. Tips are also a good way of reinforcing desired results and behaviours (Borer et al 2000). Tips make a worker work extremely fast and with dedication. How much one carrys home at the end of the day, week or month depends on the mortals zeal of work. Just like hourly pay, tips benefit both the employee and the employer.For instance, if an employee makes 20 percent of the total amount of money, it definitely goes without saying that the employer must have bagged the 80 percent. It is therefore important that the mode and way of payment as per the contract is obeyed by the two parties involved. Reinforcing of behaviour could be done in different ways, hourly pay rates and tips being one of the ways. Such a method makes the employee work beneath certain rules and conditions as deemed fit by the employer. Work for three hours, do not break anything, get your pay and tips and leave.This is normally the motto of such methods. Some employees are too careless and lazy to the extend that they do not care about what happens in the event that loses are incurred. The only way to kerb them and put them on toes in by introducing the hourly pay rates and tips. This is meant to give the employer the opportunity of maximize his/her time at the job place. In the extract, Godot decides to introduce such a method in order to cushion himself against the lazy workers who might think that they can just get to the hotel, work anyhow and get away with it.This is not Godots way of working. He believes in workers earning what they worked for. If you work hard you get more. If you just lazy around, you are bound to get very little. Diane had to work hard so that she could save something important for her use ones she went back to school. To her, a table waiting job was what she could do instead of just staying at home during summer. She thought that she could make some money and improve on her University life, actually change her diet. Her hard work would fetch her upto 23 percent on tips and $15. 0 per hour. She had set targets that she wanted to stomach. Her ability to work fast and efficiently earned her the percentage she had targeted on tips. This plus her hourly pay was enough to take care of her University needs after summer. This method of tips encouraged her to work hard. Had it been a flat rate pay on tips, Diane would not have worked as hard as she did. This meant that Godot also made a lot of money in the process. Furthermore, Godot spelt out clearly what he wanted for his restaurant.He had a vision for his restaurant and insisted on the importance of working as a team i n order to deliver good services to his customers. It is on the basis of this too that Diane decided that she would put in her best to prove how good she could be.Conclusion. From the case study, it is very clear that something has to be done in most organisations regarding work ethics and behaviour. Employers subject their workers to unfavourable working conditions and all they care about is there well being and not that of the workers (Huberman 1994).Workers in such organisations end up persevering such conditions with the aim of just making ends meet in their lives. This could be clearly seen from Dianes case. She had to persevere for the purposes of making money but did not jazz working under such conditions. Workers should enjoy doing their work and this can only be made causative by the input of the employers (Benstin 1995). Organisational behaviour is a topic of discussion that leaves many employers and employees looking for ways and methods of dealing with the issue.

Social work and substance abuse Essay Example for Free

Social work and center field holler EssayFrom the 1920s to the 1950s societal workers were non focused on helping alcoholic or drug-dependent people. Instead back then they worked with the spouse of the chemically dependent person. Juvenile drug use was not investigated until 1952. In 1957 social workers were urged to help change public attitudes towards alcoholism. In 1970 legislation was passed that was to affect the deli very of go including social work services to alcoholic clients. Soon courses were offered at school about alcoholism.Now social workers have many different techniques used when working with bosom abusers. Social workers today encounter content abuse across all fields. Views on substance abuse have changed greatly over the previous(prenominal) coulomb years. It used to not be as prevalent as it is now. Social workers only unremarkably were concerned with adults but they did not realize that it starts with adolescents. The public is now more aware of the effects of substance abuse, they are able to help family member to get the right treatment for their addiction.100 years agone there were not support groups for people with substance abuse. Now there are meeting much(prenominal) as AA that is available for alcoholics to go and talk about the addiction and these meeting help them in the convalescence border. Social workers found that it was effective having the patients talk with other patients that have gone through the same process and experiences. Ronald Reagan helped promote these changes. He got funding set up to help get the police to stop the importee and sale of illegal substances.The amount of people going to jail with drug related charges started to go up. amends companies decided to help pay for substance abuse care that was delivered in the general hospitals. This though take to the closure of many residential treatment centers. There have been some positive and some prejudicial changes. When social workers star ted to help people with substance abuse and meetings such as AA meeting were established it was very effective. I believe that substance abuse is something that is very important and needed much attention 100 years ago.I also believe that when the police started to crackdown and stop the sale of illegal drugs that was effective. I did not think that is was a good chance when the insurance companies decided to only pay for help in only general hospitals. If anything they should be covering the stay at residential treatments centers. General hospitals only backup the patient for a few days and then they let them go, that is not enough time for substance abuse patients to get better. They would be better off in treatment centers where they are able to go through detox and meet with other patients.

19th and 20th Century Gender Expectations in Literature Essay Example for Free

nineteenth and 20th Century G abolisher Expectations in Litearned run averageture EssayThe late 19th century produced a myriad of successful authors, poets and truston a dash-writes that often incorporate the local customs, traditions and expectations of the cadence (and perchance their own experiences) into their work. A fact of the times, even into early 20th century, is that women were non equal to men and the expectations of women were non equal as well. This menses pass on be illustrated by proportional analysis of two separate forms of literature Tristan Bernards humorous period of play Im expiryA Comedy in One function, and Kate Chopins short story The Story of an Hour. Authors can expenditure plays, stories or poems to capture us into their world, and through imagination we can connect with them, if only briefly, and enjoy their point of view and what they are trying to convey. Through their writing, they are truly giving us a project at history and thr ough that snapshot of time we can see the differences between societys expectations then and now. Tristan Bernards (1866-1947) Im GoingA Comedy in One Act (1915), (Clugston, 2010a), is a play set in Paris ab break a married couple (Henri and Jeanne) who on a Sunday morning are trying to decide how they are going to spend their day. Henri wants to go to the races but he wants Jeanne to stay home, though she wants to go with him, or to see her friend (Clugston, 2010a). The theme of the play is one of distrust and domainipulation, as each truly wants to spend the day on their own, and at the end of the play that is exactly what they do (Clugston, 2010a).See more Analysis of Starbucks coffee company employees essayIn this play, Bernard uses the setting of the stage and symbolic representation to convey to the audition a sense of separate desires of the couple beginning with the opening scene when Henri and Jeanne enter and sit on opposite sides of the room (Clugston, 2010a). Bernard , in fact, used symbolism in many of his works, and exploited the psychoanalytical technique to draw his dramas to suck upher (Degasse, 2008). What one really has to appearance through the mist to see, however, is how Bernard incorporates societys expectations (or double standard) of women inParis (and throughout the world, really), though in a humorous and dramatic style, into the play.One has to keep in mind that the male audience of that time probably had the same attitude and beliefs as the character Henri, and though it may shed been viewed as even up or wrong, women were expect to be subservient and obedient speckle the male was allowed further freedoms. Henri wants to goes to the races exclusively, and ultimately, that is what he does while Jeanne stays home, but let us look deeper at the play and uncover the nuances that show the distinction of the times and how Bernard conveys that conviction.After Henri and Jeannes initial entrance and they set down, the first thing that happens is Henri makes a description about how every Sunday the weather is nice until noon, then its cloudy and rainy or in that location is an advancing thunderstorm (Clugston, 2010a). This verbal observation of the weather may be a metaphor and actually provide two meanings one is that it is in fact rainy and Henri is setting a negative airwave for Jeanne who expects him to take her out for the day, and the other could be the weekly Sunday dilemma of Henri trying to go to the races without Jeanne.The rainy, or soon to be, day also sets a tone of despair, but provides Henri with an excuse to go to the races alone and hold back him and his wife the additional salute of a carriage in order to avoid the rain, and additional cost of a ladies ticket (Clugston, 2010a). In truth, it is just a manipulation of the circumstances for Henri to try to dissuade Jeanne in joining him at the races (Clugston, 2010a).Then in Bernards Im Going, A Comedy in One Act (1915), Henri recommends a promenade (a walk) with his wife instead of accompanying him to the races and Jeanne responds Yes, up the Champs-Elysees together And have you looking daggers at me all the time Whenever I do go with you, youre always make disagreeable remarks. Henri responds with Because you are in a bad humor youll never give me your arm. (Jeanne called him on his bluff, because he really doesnt want to take a walk either), (cited in Clugston, 2010a, 1. 1. 26-29).She has no real purport of going for a walk with him as she did not intend to go to the races, but does not want to see him go alone to the races and enjoy himself alone, either. This is another example of manipulation her manipulating him and vice versa, and starts the back and forrard farce of some(prenominal) supposedly wanting to spend the day together when they really do not (Clugston, 2010a). When Jeanne decides Henri can go to the races alone because she intends to go see a friend, Henri decides he will stay at home and not go to the races (Clugston, 2010a).This is an obvious representation of the husband not trusting the wife, and even though she has given sanction to him to proceed, he abandons all intentions to leave because of his suspicion of her meeting with her friend and also mayhap meeting another man. The deception between both characters is obvious at this point in the play but not obviously clear as to why. Though we know by this point that Henris intention has always been to go to the races alone, it is not yet clear why Jeanne reacts the way she does.Is it that she is handle, or expected to stay home alone while Henri goes to the races, or does she have her own nefarious agenda, or both? Finally, and after much back and forth ruse of both characters, Jeanne decides to stay at home alone and lets Henri leave for the races alone, only to delight in the fact that she can spend her afternoon working on hats and enjoying chocolate at home as detailed immediately after Henri departs for the r aces in Bernards Im Going A Comedy in One Act (1915), (cited by Clugston, 2010a, 1. 1. 81-185) (Waits for a moment, listens, and hears the out more or less door close, then rises, and goes to the door at the back.She speaks to someone off-stage) Marie, dont go before you get me a large cup of chocolate. Bring two rolls, too. Oh, and go at once to my room and bring me my box of ribbons and those old hats. (She comes down- stage, and says beaming) What fun Ill have trimming hats Throughout this play Jeanne is expected by Henri to stay at home while he enjoys the afternoon alone, and despite the opposition Jeanne gives him, she at long last desists and Henri has his way while she is left at home.This is an excellent example of how women were treated by their husbands then as compared to how most men and women interact today. thither was probably no other recourse for the character Jeanne but to square off herself to some enjoyment at home with her hats, and chocolate, and rolls. It could be argued that that is what she wanted all along, that she only wanted a reassurance that her husband loved her, but probably not, more than likely she simply had no other election than to occupy her Sunday alone as best as she could and succumb to her husbands wishes.There stands some ambiguity as to whether they really love each other, or if Jeanne is simply stuck and cannot get out of the situation she is in. Sixteen years earlier than the play by Tristan Bernard discussed above, but in the same era of male dominance, Kate Chopin (1850-1904) wrote several short stories and novels which also depict the sexist plight of women in her time and the choices they had to perish in order to survive, including quite possibly domestic violence in a time when no recourse was available (Tate, 2000).Unlike Bernard, who was a renowned writer at the age of 25, Chopin was considered a feminist, and as a young widow who had to raise six children alone when she lost her husband to swamp fev er, she eventually succeeded by turning to writing and was widely accepted in the southern United States literary heap (Tucker, 1996). Much of her writing incorporates her own life experiences and tribulations, such as The Awakening, (1899) which depicts a 19th century charr who is adulterous, but maintains her strength and individuality despite of what society thinks about her (Tucker, 1996).It is of little doubt that Kate Chopin was of the same look and character of many of those characters in her stories. According to Leary (1968), much of her writing Speaks of marital unhappiness and of dangers which lie in wait for people who do as they want to do without concern for other people (p. 60). Kate Chopins The Story of an Hour (1894), (Clugston, 2010b), is scripted clearly and succinctly leaving little room for ambiguity or misinterpretation.Chopins direct style of writing draws the reader in quickly and gives immediate insight to what is contingency and what the feelings of the characters are, thus increasing the understanding of what the author is trying to convey. Like Bernard, Chopin uses symbolism and tone to enhance the (in this case) conceptional setting to further the readers experience. Unlike Bernard, Chopins form was short stories and novels instead of plays to be performed in front of live audiences.It is also important to look at Kate Chopin from a biographical/historic perspective to realize Chopin has also used life experiences as a basis for some of her characters in this story Mr. Mallard has reportedly been killed in a train accident, while in reality Kate Chopins father really was killed in a train accident (Tucker, 1996).According to Seyersted, (cited in Kelly, 1994, p. 332), after critiquing Athenaise, he states that In spite of its happy ending, this tale is, on a deeper level, a protest against womans condition. Seyersted is undoubtedly referring to womens struggle at that time for equality with men. Closer comparison of this story with Bernards play will bring to the surface many similarities of the uphill struggle women of this era endured and how it is depicted and apparent in our literature. In Chopins The Story of an Hour, the main character, Mrs. Mallard receives word at home that her economise had been killed in a train accident, she was distraught and crying, and when this subsided, she retires alone to a large armchair facing an open windowpane in her room (Clugston, 2010b).This initial reaction to her loss seems fairly normal up to this point in the story, but then the Narrator describes what Mrs. Mallard sees, smells and hears from the open window, using symbolism and tone to describe a renewal in life, as described in Chopins Story of an Hour, (cited by Clugston, 2010b, para. 5) She could see in the open square before her house the tops of trees that were all aquiver with the new spring life. The delicious pinch of rain was in the air.In the street below a peddler was crying his wares. The notes of a removed(p) song which some one was singing reached her faintly, and countless sparrows were twittering in the eaves. As the story unfolds, Mrs. Mallard feels an sensation coming to her which she initially cannot identify, but ultimately does identify it it is relief and a sense of a new freedom (Clugston, 2010). But why would she feel this way now unless she felt oppressed or abused when her husband was alive? A better description of what Mrs.Mallard had endured under her Husbands practice and what she imagined the future to hold is stated in the story There would be no powerful will bending hers in that blind persistence with which men and women believe they have a right to overthrow a private will upon a fellow-creature (cited in Clugston, 2010b, para. 14). The Author is speaking to the reader about this love in 1894, a very bold and controversial statement for a time in which women were not expected to behave this way.Nearing the end of the story Mrs. Mallard finally a ccepts her newfound freedom and rejoices to herself Free eubstance and soul free (cited in Clugston, 2010b, para. 19), only to be persuaded out of her room by her sister and clear downstairs just as her husband comes through the front door, he was in fact not dead after all (Clugston, 2010). Mrs. Mallard died upon seeing her husband though the doctors said it was aggregate indisposition (earlier in the story it does mention she had a weak heart), (Clugston, 2010). One has to wonder though, did Mrs. Mallard die from heart disease or is this another symbol the Author uses to express Mrs. Mallard (or any oppressed woman) would earlier die than give up her freedom and individuality?Tristan Bernards Im Going A Comedy in One Act is a play written by a man in France sixteen years after Kate Chopins The Story of an Hour, which is a short story written by a woman in the United States. Though there are differences in the Authors, origin, form, audience or reader, some compelling similar ities exist the time they were written (1915 1894, respectively), that both Authors incorporate issues of the time into their work, and perhaps most importantly, they both display the subservient, oppressive place which women are expected to take in the 19th and 20th centuries.

An Introduction to Genre Theory Essay Example for Free

An Introduction to music musical writing style Theory EssayAn Introduction to Genre Theory Daniel Chandler 1. The problem of description A number of perennial doubts plague musical musical style theory. Are musical styles in truth out there in the world, or atomic number 18 they merely the constructions of analysts? Is there a finite taxonomy of genres or ar they in principle infinite? Are genres timeless Platonic essences or ephemeral, time-bound entities? Are genres culturebound or transcultural? Should genre analysis be descriptive or proscriptive? (Stam 2000, 14) The word genre comes from the French (and earlier Latin) word for kind or class. The term iswidely utilized in rhetoric, literary theory, media theory, and much of late linguistics, to refer to a distinctive type of text*. Robert Allen nones that for most of its 2,000 years, genre study has been primarily nominological and typological in function. That is to say, it has taken as its top dog task the division of the world of literature into types and the naming of those types much as the botanist divides the realm of flora into varieties of plants (Allen 1989, 44). As will be forecastn, however, the analogy with biological classification into genus and species misleadingly suggests a scientific process.Since classical times literary works have been classified ad as belong to habitual types which were variously defined. In literature the broadest division is between poetry, prose and drama, in spite of appearance which there be overhear headway divisions, such as tragedy and comedy deep down the category of drama. Shakespe be referred satirically to classifications such as tragedy, comedy, history, pastoral, pastoral-comical, historical-pastoral, tragical-historical, tragical-comicalhistorical-pastoral (Hamlet II ii).In The Anatomy of Criticism the formalist literary theorist Northrop Frye (1957) presented certain universal genres and modesas the key to organizing the constitutional literary corpus. Contemporary media genres tend to relate more to specific forms than to the universals of tragedy and comedy. Nowadays, films ar routinely classified (e. g. in television listings magazines) as thrillers, westerns and so on genres with which every adult in modern rescript is familiar.So too with television genres such as game shows and sitcoms. Whilst we have call for countless genres in m all media, whatsoever theorists have argued that there ar likewise many genres (and sub-genres) for which we have no names (Fowler 1989, 216 Wales 1989, 206). Carolyn milling machinesuggests that the number of genres in any society depends on the complexity and diversity of society ( miller 1984, in Freedman Medway 1994a, 36).The classification and hierarchical taxonomy of genres is not a neutral and objective procedure. There are no undis ordinateed maps of the system of genres within any medium (though literature whitethorn perhaps lay well-nigh claim to a loose consensus). Furthermore, there is a lot considerable theoretical disagreement about the definition of specific genres. A genre is ultimately an abstract conception sooner than something that exists empirically in the world,notes Jane Feuer (1992, 144). peerless theorists genre may be anformer(a)s sub-genre or steady super-genre (and indeed what is technique, style, mode, formula or thematic chemical group to ane may be treated as a genre by another(prenominal)).Themes, at least, come along inadequate as a basis for defining genres since, as David Bordwell notes, any theme may count in any genre (Bordwell 1989, 147). He asks Are animation and documentary films genres or modes? Is the filmed make up or comedy performance a genre? If tragedy and comedy are genres, perhaps consequently domestic tragedy or slapstick is a formula. Inpassing, he offers a useful enumeration of categories used in film criticism, many of which have been accorded the status of genres by various commentatorsGrouping by period or country (Ameri sens films of the 1930s), by director or star or producer or author or studio, by technical process (Cinemascope films), by cycle (the fallen women films), by serial (the 007 movies), by style (German Expressionism), by structure (narrative), by ideology (Reaganite cinema), by venue (drive-in movies), by blueprint (home movies), by earr separately (teenpix), by root or theme (family film, paranoid-politics movies).(Bordwell 1989, 148) Another film theorist, Robert Stam, overly refers to ordinary ways of categorizing films While some genres are found on story content (the war film), other are borrowed from literature (comedy, melodrama) or from other media (the musical). Some are performer-based (the Astaire-Rogers films) or budget-based (blockbusters), while others are based on artistic status (the art film), racial identity (Black cinema), location (the Western) or sexual orientation (Queer cinema).(Stam 2000, 14). Bo rdwell concludes that one could argue that no set of undeniable and sufficient conditions shadowermark off genres from other sorts of groupings in ways that all experts or ordinary film-goers would get down An Introduction to Genre Theory acceptable (Bordwell 1989, 147). Practitioners and the general public make use of their own genre labels (de facto genres) quite apart from those of academic theorists. We might indeed ask ourselves Whose genre is it anyway? Still further problems with definitional approaches will become apparent in delinquent course. Defining genres may not initially seem factly problematic but it should already be apparent that it is a theoretical minefield.Robert Stam identifies four key problems with generic wine labels (in sex act to film) extension (the breadth or narrowness of labels) normativism (having preconceived ideas of criteria for genre membership) monolithic definitions (as if an item belonged to lonesome(prenominal) one genre) biologism (a kind of essentialism in which genres are seen as evolving through a standardized elevator career cycle) (Stam 2000, 128129). Conventional definitions of genres tend to be based on the imagination that they constitute particular proposition conventions of content (such as themes or settings) and/or form (including structure and style) whichare divided by the texts which are regarded as belonging to them.Alternative characterizations will be discussed in collectable course. The attempt to define particular genres in terms of necessary and sufficient textual properties is sometimes seen as theoretically attractive but it poses many difficulties. For instance, in the case of films, some seem to be line up with one genre in content and another genre in form. The film theorist Robert Stam argues that put forward matter is the weakest criterion for generic grouping because it fails to take into account how the subject is treated (Stam 2000, 14). Outlining a profound problem ofgenr e identification in relation to films, Andrew Tudor notes the empiricist dilemmaTo take a genre such as the western, analyze it, and list its principal typicals, is to beg the question that we must first sequester the body of films which are westerns. But they stooge totally be isolated on the basis of the principal characteristics which scum bag only be discovered from the films themselves after they have been isolated. (Cited in Gledhill 1985, 59) It is seldom hard to find texts which are exceptions to any given definition of a particular genre. There are no starchy rules of inclusion and exclusion (Gledhill 1985, 60).Genres are not discrete systems, consisting of a fixed number of listable items (ibid. , 64). It is difficult to make clear-cut distinctions between one genre and another genres overlap, and there are mixed genres (such as comedy-thrillers). 2 Specific genres tend to be easy to recognize intuitively but difficult (if not unacceptable) to define. grumpy featu res which are characteristic of a genre are not normally unique to it it is their relative prominence, junto and functions which are distinctive (Neale 1980, 22-3). It is easy to underplay the differences within a genre.Steve Neale declaresthat genres are instances of repetition and difference (Neale 1980, 48). He adds that difference is absolutely essential to the economy of genre (ibid. , 50) mere repetition would not attract an audience. Tzvetan Todorov argued that any instance of a genre will be necessarily different (cited in Gledhill 1985, 60). backside Hartley notes that the accession of just one film to the Western genre tilts that genre as a whole redden though the Western in question may display few of the recognized conventions, styles or subject matters traditionally associated with its genre (OSullivan et al. 1994).The issue of difference in addition juicylights the fact that some genres are looser more open-ended in their conventions or more permeable in their b oundaries than others. Texts often exhibit the conventions of more than one genre. John Hartley notes that the same text can belong to different genres in different countries or times (OSullivan et al. 1994, 129). crossbred genres abound (at least outdoor(a) theoretical frameworks). Van Leeuwen suggests that the multiple mathematical functions of journalism often lead to generically heterogeneous texts (cited in Fairclough 1995, 88). Norman Fairclough suggests that mixed-genre texts are far from uncommon in the chain reactor media (Fairclough 1995, 89).Some media may encourage more generic diversity Nicholas Abercrombie notes that since television comes at the audience as a prevail of programmes, all with different generic conventions, means that it is more difficult to sustain the purity of the genre in the viewing experience (Abercrombie 1996, 45 his emphasis). Furthermore, in any medium the generic classification of certain texts may be uncertain or subject to dispute. Conte mporary theorists tend to describe genres in terms of family resemblances among texts (a notion derived from the philosopher Wittgenstein) rather than definitionally (Swales 1990, 49).An someone text within a genre rarely if ever has all of the characteristic features of the genre (Fowler 1989, 215). The family resemblance approaches involves the theorist illustrating similarities between some of the texts within a genre. However, the family resemblance approach has been criticized on the basis that no choice of a text for illustrative purposes is innocent (David Lodge, cited in Swales 1990, 50), and that such theories can make any text seem to resemble any other one (Swales 1990, 51).In supplement to the definitional and family resemblance approach, there isAn Introduction to Genre Theory another approach to describing genres which is based on the psycholinguistic concept of prototypicality. According to this approach, some texts would be widely regarded as being more typical mem bers of a genre than others.According to this approach certain features would identify the extent to which an exemplar is prototypical of a particular genre (Swales 1990, 52). Genres can therefore be seen as fuzzy categories which cannot be defined by necessary and sufficient conditions. How we define a genre depends on our purposesthe adequacy of our definition in terms of companionable science at least must surely be related to the light that the exploration sheds on the phenomenon.For instance (and this is a key concern of mine), if we are studying the way in which genre frames the readers edition of a text because we would do well to focus on how readers identify genres rather than on theoretical distinctions.Defining genres may be problematic, but even if theorists were to abandon the concept, in everyday life people would continue to categorize texts. John Swales does note that a discourse communitys nomenclature for genres is animportant man-made lake of insight (Swales 1 990, 54), though like many academic theorists he later adds that such genre names typically take in further validation (ibid. , 58).Some genre names would be likely to be more widely-used than others it would be interesting to investigate the areas of popular consensus and dissensus in relation to the everyday labeling of mass media genres. For Robert Hodge and Gunther Kress, genres only exist in so far as a social group declares and enforces the rules that constitute them (Hodge Kress 1988, 7), though it is debatable towhat extent most of us would be able to formulate explicit rules for the textual genres we use routinely much of our genre knowledge is likely to be tacit.In relation to film, Andrew Tudor argued that genre is what we collectively believe it to be (though this begs the question about who we are). Robert Allen comments wryly that Tudor even hints that in send to establish what audiences expect a western to be like we might have to ask them (Allen 1989, 47). Swales also alludes to people having repertoires of genres (Swales 1990, 58), which I would argue would also be likely to repayinvestigation. However, as David Buckingham notes, there has hardly been any empirical research on the ways in which real audiences might understand genre, or use this understanding in devising sense of specific texts (Buckingham 1993, 137).Steve Neale stresses that genres are not systems they are processes of systematization (Neale 1980, 51 my emphasis cf. Neale 1995, 463). Traditionally, genres (particularly literary genres) tended to be regarded 3 as fixed forms, but present-day(a) theory emphasizes that both their forms and functions are dynamic. David Buckingham argues that genre is notsimply given by the culture rather, it is in a constant process of negotiation and neuter (Buckingham 1993, 137). Nicholas Abercrombie suggests that the boundaries between genres are shifting and becoming more permeable (Abercrombie 1996, 45) Abercrombie is concerned with m odern television, which he suggests seems to be engaged in a steady tear down of genre (ibid. ) which can be attributed in part to economic pressures to pursue new-made audiences. One may acknowledge the dynamic fluidity of genres without positing the final demise of genre as an interpretive framework.As the generic corpus ceaselessly expands, genres (and the relationships between them) change over time the conventions of each genre shift, new genres and sub-genres bring out and others are discontinued (though note that certain genres seem particularly long-lasting). Tzvetan Todorov argued that a new genre is ever the transformation of one or several old genres (cited in Swales 1990, 36). Each new work within a genre has the potential to influence changes within the genre or perhaps the emergence of new sub-genres (which may later blossom into fully-fledged genres).However, such a stead tends to highlight the role of authorial experiment in changing genres and their conventions , whereas it is important to recognize not only the social nature of text business but especially the role of economic and technological factors as well as changing audience preferences. The interaction between genres and media can be seen as one of the forces which contributes to changing genres. Some genres are more powerful than others they differ in the status which is attributed to them by those who produce texts within them and by their audiences. As Tony Thwaites et al.put it, in the interaction and conflicts among genres we can see the connections between textuality and power (Thwaites et al. 1994, 104). The key genres in institutions which are original definers (such as news reports in the mass media) dress well to establish the frameworks within which issues are defined. But genre hierarchies also shift over time, with individual genres constantly gaining and losing different groups of users and relative status. Idealist theoretical approaches to genre which seek to ca tegorize ideal types in terms of essential textual characteristics are ahistorical.As a result oftheir dynamic nature as processes, Neale argues that definitions of genre are always historically relative, and therefore historically specific (Neale 1995, 464). Similarly, Boris Tomashevsky insists that no firm logical classification of genres is possible. Their de- An Introduction to Genre Theory marcation is always historical, that is to say, it is objurgate only for a specific moment of history (cited in Bordwell 1989, 147). Some genres are defined only retrospectively, being unrecognized as such by the original producers and audiences. Genres need to be studied as historical phenomena a popular focus infilm studies, for instance, has been the evolution of conventions within a genre. flow genres go through phases or cycles of popularity (such as the cycle of disaster films in the 1970s), sometimes becoming motionless for a period rather than disappearing. On-going genres and their conventions themselves change over time. Reviewing evolutionary change in some popular film genres, Andrew Tudor concludes that it has three main characteristics First, in that innovations are added to an existent corpus rather than switch redundant elements, it is cumulative. Second, in thatthese innovations must be basically consistent with what is already present, it is conservative.Third, in that these processes lead to the crystallisation of specialist sub-genres, it involves differentiation. (Tudor 1974, 225-6) Tudor himself is cautious about adopting the biological analogy of evolution, with its implication that only those genres which are well-adapted to their functions survive. Christine Gledhill also notes the danger of essentialism in divideing definitive classic examples towards which earlier examples evolve and after which others decline (Gledhill 1985, 59).The cycles and transformations of genres can nevertheless be seen as a result to political, social and econom ic conditions. Referring to film, Andrew Tudor notes that a genre defines a moral and social world (Tudor 1974, 180). Indeed, a genre in any medium can be seen as supporting certain determine and ideological assumptions. Again in the context of the cinema Susan Hayward argues that genre conventions change fit to the ideological climate of the time, direct melodic lineing John Wayne westerns with Clint Eastwood as the problematic hero or anti-hero (Hayward 1996, 50). social lion Baudry (cited in Hayward 1996, 162) sees film genres as a barometer of the social and cultural concerns of cinema audiences Robert Lichter et al. (1991) illustrate how televisual genres glow the values of the programme-makers. Some commentators see mass media genres from a particular era as reflecting values which were dominant at the time. Ira Konigsberg, for instance, suggests that texts within genres embody the moral values of a culture (Konigsberg 1987, 144-5). And John Fiske asserts that generic co nventions embody the crucial ideological concerns of the time in which they are popular4 (Fiske 1987, 110). However, Steve Neale stresses that genres may also help to shape such values (Neale 1980, 16). Thwaites et al. see the relationship as reciprocal a genre develops according to social conditions transformations in genre and texts can influence and reinforce social conditions (Thwaites et al. 1994, 100). Some Marxist commentators see genre as an instrument of social control which reproduces the dominant ideology. Within this perspective, the genre positions the audience in order to naturalize the ideologies which are embedded in the text (Feuer 1992, 145).Bernadette Casey comments that recently, structuralists and feminist theorists, among others, have focused on the way in which generically defined structures may operate to construct particular ideologies and values, and to encourage calm and conservative interpretations of a given text (Casey 193, 312). However, reader-orient ed commentators have stressed that people are capable of indication against the grain.Thomas and Vivian Sobchack note that in the past popular film-makers, intent on telling a story, were not always aware of the covert psychological and socialsubtext of their own films, but add that modern film-makers and their audiences are now more keenly aware of the myth-making accomplished by film genres (Sobchack Sobchack 1980, 245).Genre can reflect a function which in relation to television Horace Newcombe and Paul Hirsch referred to as a cultural forum, in which industry and audience negotiate shared beliefs and values, helping to maintain the social order and assisting it in adapting to change (Feuer 1992, 145). Certainly, genres are far from being ideologically neutral.Sonia Livingstone argues, indeed, that different genres are concerned to establish different world views (Livingstone 1990, 155). Related to the ideological dimension of genres is one modern redefinition in terms of purpo ses. In relation to writing, Carolyn Miller argues that a rhetorically sound definition of genre must be centered not on the substance or form of discourse but on the action it is used to accomplish (Carolyn Miller 1984, in Freedman Medway 1994a, 24). Following this lead, John Swales declares that the principal criterial feature that turns a collection of communicativeevents into a genre is some shared set of communicative purposes (Swales 1990, 46).In relation to the mass media it can be fruitful to consider in relation to genre the purposes not only of the producers of texts but also of those who interpret them (which need not be assumed always to match). A consensus about the primary purposes of some genres (such as news bulletins) and of their readers is probably easier to establish than in relation to others (such as westerns), where the very term purpose sounds too in- An Introduction to Genre Theory strumental.However, uses and gratifications researchers have already cond ucted investigations into the various functions that the mass media seem to serve for people, and ethnographic studies have offered fruitful insights into this dimension. Miller argues that both in writing and discipline within genres we pack purposes appropriate to the genre in relation to the mass media it could be argued that particular genres develop, frame and legitimate particular concerns, questions and pleasures.Related redefinitions of genre focus more broadly on the relationship between the makers and audiencesof texts (a rhetorical dimension). To variable extents, the formal features of genres establish the relationship between producers and interpreters. Indeed, in relation to mass media texts Andrew Tolson redefines genre as a category which mediates between industry and audience (Tolson 1996, 92).Note that such approaches undermine the definition of genres as stringently textual types, which excludes any reference even to intended audiences. A basic model underlyin g contemporaneous media theory is a triangular relationship between the text, its producers and its interpreters.From the perspective of many recent commentators, genres first and first off provide frameworks within which texts are produced and interpreted. Semiotically, a genre can be seen as a shared code between the producers and interpreters of texts implicated within it. Alastair Fowler goes so far as to suggest that communication is impossible without the agreed codes of genre (Fowler 1989, 216). Within genres, texts embody authorial attempts to position readers using particular modes of address. Gunther Kress observes thatEvery genre positions those who participate ina text of that kind as interviewer or interviewee, as listener or storyteller, as a reader or a writer, as a person interested in political matters, as someone to be instructed or as someone who instructs each of these positionings implies different possibilities for response and for action. Each written text provides a reading position for readers, a position constructed by the writer for the ideal reader of the text. (Kress 1988, 107) Thus, embedded within texts are assumptions about the ideal reader, including their attitudes towards the subject matter and often their class, age, gender and ethnicity.Gunther Kress defines a genre as a kind of text that derives its form from the structure of a (frequently repeated) social occasion, with its characteristic participants and their purposes (Kress 1988, 183). An interpretative emphasis on genre as opposed 5 to individual texts can help to remind us of the social nature of the production and interpretation of texts. In relation to film, many modern commentators refer to the commercial and industrial significance of genres.Denis McQuail argues that The genre may be considered as a practicaldevice for helping any mass medium to produce consistently and efficiently and to relate its production to the expectations of its customers. Since it is also a practical device for enabling individual media users to plan their choices, it can be considered as a mechanism for ordering the relations between the two main parties to mass communication. (McQuail 1987, 200)Steve Neale observes that genres exist within the context of a set of economic relations and practices, though he adds that genres are not the product of economic factors as such.The conditions provided by the capitalist economy account neither for the globe of the particular genres that have hitherto been produced, nor for the existence of the conventions that constitute them (Neale 1980, 51-2). Economic factors may account for the perpetuation of a profitable genre. Nicholas Abercrombie notes that television producers set out to exploit genre conventions It makes sound economic sense. Sets, properties and costumes can be used over and over again. Teams of stars, writers, directors and technicians can be built up, giving economies of scale (Abercrombie 1996, 43).He a dds that genres digest the creation and maintenance of a loyal audience which becomes used to seeing programmes within a genre (ibid. ). Genres can be seen as a means of controlling demand (Neale 1980, 55). The relative stability of genres enables producers to foreknow audience expectations. Christine Gledhill notes that differences between genres meant different audiences could be identified and catered to This made it easier to standardize and stabilise production (Gledhill 1985, 58). In relation to the mass media, genre is part of the process of targeting different market sectors.Traditionally, literary and film critics in particular have regarded generic texts (by which they mean formulaic texts) as inferior to those which they contend are produced outside a generic framework. Indeed, film theorists frequently refer to popular films as genre films in contrast to non-formula films. Elitist critics reject the generic fiction of the mass media because they are commercial products of popular culture rather than high art. Many harbor the Romantic ideology of the primacy of authorial originality and vision, emphasizing individual styleand artistic self-expression.In this tradition the An Introduction to Genre Theory artist (in any medium) is seen as breaking the mould of convention. For the Italian aesthetician Benedetto Croce (1866-1952), an artistic work was always unique and there could be no artistic genres. more than recently, some literary and film theorists have accorded more vastness to genre, counteracting the ideology of authorial primacy (or auteurism, as it is know in relation to the emphasis on the director in film). Contemporary theorists tend to emphasize the importance of the semiotic notion of intertextualityof seeing individual texts in relation to others. Katie Wales notes that genre is an intertextual concept (Wales 1989, 259). John Hartley suggests that we need to understand genre as a property of the relations between texts (OSullivan e t al. 1994, 128). And as Tony Thwaites et al. put it, each text is influenced by the generic rules in the way it is put together the generic rules are built by each text (Thwaites et al. 1994, 100).Roland Barthes (1975) argued that it is in relation to other texts within a genre rather than in relation to lived experience that we make sense of certainevents within a text. There are analogies here with schema theory in psychology, which proposes that we have mental scripts which help us to interpret 6 familiar events in everyday life. John Fiske offers this striking exampleA representation of a car chase only makes sense in relation to all the others we have seen after all, we are unbelievable to have experienced one in reality, and if we did, we would, according to this model, make sense of it by turning it into another text, which we would also understand intertextually, in terms of what we have seen so often on our screens.There is then a cultural knowledge of the concept car c hase that any one text is a prospectus for, and that it used by the viewer to decode it, and by the producer to encode it. (Fiske 1987, 115) In contrast to those of a traditionalist literary bent who tend to present artistic texts as nongeneric, it could be argued that it is impossible to produce texts which bear no relationship whatsoever to established genres. Indeed, Jacques Derrida proposed that a text cannot belong to no genre, it cannot be without a genre.Every text participates in one or several genres, there is no genre-less text(Derrida 1981, 61). Note *In these notes, words such as text, reader and writer are sometimes used as general terms relating to texts (and so on) in whatever medium is being discussed no privileging of the written word (graphocentrism) is intended. Whilst it is hard to find an alternative for the word texts, terms such as makers and interpreters are sometimes used here as terms non-specific to particular media instead of the terms writers and readers .2. Working within genres John Hartley argues that genres are agents of ideological closure they limit the meaning-potentialof a given text (OSullivan et al. 1994, 128). Robert Hodge and Gunther Kress define genres as typical forms of texts which link kinds of producer, consumer, topic, medium, manner and occasion, adding that they control the behavior of producers of such texts, and the expectations of potential consumers (Hodge Kress 1988, 7). Genres can be seen as constituting a kind of tacit contract between authors and readers. From the traditional Romantic perspective, genres are seen as close and inhibiting authorial creativity.However, contemporary theorists, evenwithin literary studies, typically reject this view (e. g. Fowler 1982 31). Gledhill notes that one perspective on this issue is that some of those who write within a genre work in imaginative tension with the conventions, attempting a personal inflection of them (Gledhill 1985 63). From the point of view of the producers of texts within a genre, an advantage of genres is that they can rely on readers already having knowledge and expectations about works within a genre.Fowler comments that the system of generic expectations amounts to a code, by the use of which(or by departure from which) composition becomes more economical (Fowler 1989 215). Genres can thus be seen as a kind of shorthand serving to increase the efficiency of communication. They may even function as a means of preventing a text from dissolving into individualism and incomprehensibility (Gledhill 1985 63). And whilst writing within a genre involves making use of certain given conventions, every work within a genre also involves the invention of some new elements.An Introduction to Genre Theory As for reading within genres, some argue that knowledge of genre conventions leads to passiveconsumption of generic texts others argue that making sense of texts within genres is an active process of constructing meaning (Knight 199 4). Genre provides an important frame of reference which helps readers to identify, select and interpret texts.Indeed, in relation to advertisements, Varda Langholz Leymore argues that the sense which viewers make of any single text depends on how it relates to the genre as a whole (Langholz Leymore 1975, ix). Key psychological functions of genre are likely to include those shared by categorization generally such as reducing complexity.